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Joel Feinberg: The Nature and Value of Rights (CMP – J. White)

Joel Feinberg wants to demonstrate that rights are morally important because there are people who actually don’t realize for a fact that it is morally important. To be able to point out his point, he used a technique where in he imaginably created this place that he called Nowheresville. Feinberg discusses Nowheresville as a world where in people have no rights and are not treated equally. Nowheresville is different from ours because we have rights and we have equality.

In this chapter, Feinberg also discusses to us the doctrine of the logical correlativity rights and duties. He states that all duties entail other people’s rights and all rights entail other people’s duties. The doctrine is alleged entailment from duties to rights. Feinberg states that “In a sense yes and in a sense no.” Moreover, Feinberg discusses about the concept of personal desert. Feinberg explains that the concept is when a person deserves something good, he deserves it. Although Feinberg stated that deserving something goof is different from the right of having something good. And I agree with Feinberg.

Annette Baier: The Need for More Than Justice (CMP – J. White)

In this chapter, Annette Baier will be talking us through about the need for more justice. To give you a background on the author, Baier is another professor who teaches philosophy at the University of Pittsburgh. She is the author of A Progress of Sentiments: Reflection on Hume’s Treatise and Moral Prejudices: Essays on Ethics.

Following another philosopher named Carol Gilligan, Baier distinguishes between the justice perspective of philosophers such as Kant and Rawls and the care perspective Gilligan found in her studies of the moral development of women. It is said that Baier argues that the justice perspective by itself is inadequate as a moral theory. She said that it overlooks inequalities between people (parent-child relationships), it has an unrealistic view of freedom of choice, and she says that it ignores the importance of moral emotions such as love, which I find important in my opinion. Although some philosophers don’t actually believe in love and have their own philosophical theory. There are actually two perspectives, which is care and justice. Baier stated that women would most likely choose justice perspective rather than care because care is a woman’s role in life. Women give birth and all women take care of their child. Well, that excludes those who abort or abandon their child.

John Rawls: A Theory of Justice (CMP – J. White)

Rawls theory states that there are two principles of justice, which is involving equal right to the most extensive basic liberty compatible with a similar liberty for others and the other principle is the arrangement of social and economic inequalities. As what Rawls said, these are the principles that free and rational persons would accept in a hypothetical original position where there is a veil of ignorance hiding from the contractors all the particular facts about themselves.

I have learned that there are principles, which are actually there to ensure that no one is to take advantage of situations, which is actually good.

Ronald Dworkin: Taking Rights Seriously (CMP – J. White)

Dworkin says that if a people have a right to do something, then it is wrong to interfere with them. This is actually true and I agree with Dworkin on this. Not to mention, a right is a right. Interfering with it is violating that right. Dworkin believes that this notion of rights rest on the Kantian idea of treating people with dignity as members of the moral community, and also on the idea of political quality.

I have learned that you must not interfere with someone else’s right unless it is for a reason that will harm you for example. Rights are supposed to be valued and taken seriously. People should I think start learning this because as I have said, there are many who just let their right be abused or violated.

Aristotle: Happiness and Virtue (CMP – J. White)

Aristotle argues that all human beings seek happiness, and that happiness is not pleasure, honor, or wealth, but an activity of the soul in accordance with virtue. As we have discussed in the previous chapter that happiness is the one thing and the only thing desirable. I think that it somehow relates with the happiness Aristotle is pointing out. Aristotle also pointed out that there are two kinds of virtue, which is moral and intellectual.

Aristotle explains moral virtue, which comes from training and habit, and generally is a state of character that is a mean between the vices of excess and deficiency. One example of Aristotle would be courage, as a mean between extremes of rashness (excess) and cowardice (deficiency). So, this is what Aristotle means by a moral virtue. These are things that we believe in and are based on how we were raised as a person.

So basically, this chapter is all about how Aristotle makes his point regarding happiness and virtue, in which Aristotle said that they are connected.

Immanuel Kant: The Categorical Imperative (CMP – J. White)

Immanuel Kant believes that our moral duty can be formulated in one supreme rule, which is non other than the main topic of this chapter, The Categorical Imperative. It is known as from where all our duties can be derived. Although he has stated that there is just one rule, which he gives different versions of. Two of the rules seem to be distinct though. He concludes that the supreme rule or rules by considering the nature of good will and duty, which is actually discussed in this chapter.

Asides from good will and duty, the categorical imperative will be discussed and be elaborated to give us an understanding of what it is all about. There’s also the distinguishment of hypothetical and categorical imperative. So basically, this chapter is all about Immanuel Kant’s philosophical theories and his beliefs.

I have learned in this chapter that Immanuel Kant is one of the most important philosophers of all time. It seems to amaze me how one person could contribute to every area of philosophy, which if you ask me to do is a headache. I think if you are not a philosopher fan or trying to be a philosopher, it’s hard to do these deep thinking and wonderings with all the things and mental aspects in this world.

James Rachels: The Debate Over Utilitarianism (CMP – J. White)

The utilitarianism doctrine is that happiness is desirable and the only thing desirable, as an end; all other things being desirable as means to that end. In this chapter, the Resilience of the Theory will be discussed. These theories consist of the Classical Utilitarianism, which are summarized in three propositions. The First, Actions are judged right or wrong solely in virtue of their consequences. Second, in assessing consequences, the only thing that matters is the amount of happiness or unhappiness that caused. And third, in calculating happiness or unhappiness that will be caused, no one’s happiness is to be counted as more important than anyone else.

It is also discussed here in this chapter if happiness is the only thing that matters. In addition Hedonism is also discussed. Hedonism is a perennially popular theory that goes back at least as far as ancient Greeks. It is the belief of a good thing, which they called happiness. Happiness is a response as goods, independently and in their own right. In order to defend utilitarianism, they must make use resources which makes them happy, to be happy.

It is interesting to take note of the rule and act utilitarianism. The new version of Utilitarianism modifies the original theory so that individual actions will no longer be judged by Principle of Utility. Instead, rules will be established by reference to the rules. Rule Utilitarianism is actions conforming to the rules that will lead to the greater good while on the other hand; Act Utilitarianism states that the right action is the one that will give happiness to a person.

So basically, this chapter is all about the discussion on the debate over utilitarianism and some other concepts.

John Stuart Mill: Utilitarianism (CMP – J. White)

Mill brings us the basic principles of utilitarianism, including the Principle of Utility (of the Greatest Happiness Principle) and the hedonistic principle that happiness pleasure. Mill explains to us the theory by replying to various objections and connections and concludes with an attempt to prove the Principle of Utility.

It has been discussed by Mill that Great Happiness Principle holds that actions are right in proportion, as they tend to promote happiness, wrong, as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness. Lying and Stealing are wrong and it is in our religious beliefs that it is wrong, that’s why it doesn’t brig happiness. But with regards to who’s happiness should be considered, he stated that Utilitarian standard is the greatest happiness of all.